IMPERIAL ASTROLOGERS IN ANCIENT ROME

ASTROLOGERS IN IMPERIAL ROME

Astrologers and astrology moved, according to Robert Hand, from Babylon and Persian Chaldea to Greece and Egypt. From there, it went to Rome. Rome was the center of the world for hundreds of years. The Roman Empire grew substantially after Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama (204 BCE), and Rome acquired Carthage and most of the northern parts of Africa as client states. It grew again after Julius Caesar conducted his expeditionary wars in Gaul, and added the better part of northern Europe to the empire.

The success of Roman generals like Scipio Africanus, Gaius Marius, Sulla, and Julius Caesar had extended the scope of the empire beyond the Republic’s ability to control it. The political machinery of the Republic was not structured to control a multi-national empire. Caesar, for all of his foibles, was well aware of this weakness, and upon his return from ten years of warfare in Gaul, he established himself as a dictator. The political innovations he implemented helped the empire cope with this extensive land mass. Augustus carried on his great-uncle’s work in this respect. Territorial governors were assigned to control conquered territories and manage the tax farmers who collected set taxes in a more-or-less orderly way. Legions occupied all parts of the Empire, and upon retirement, soldiers were settled in regions and encouraged to marry local women. In this way, their habits, language, and citizenship helped Romanized conquered areas within a few generations.

Caesar’s dictatorship wasn’t popular, and his heir, Octavian, had to struggle to retain any measure of control after Caesar’s assassination (44 BCE). He joined a triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey. The men clashed. Marcus Antonius and Lepidus joined Octavian in a second triumvirate. Octavius defeated Antonius and Queen Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE), and annexed Egypt after their suicides. Upon his return, Octavius assumed control of the Roman Empire, and took the title of Caesar Augustus in 27 BCE.

Imperial Rome

The reign of Augustus was a long one (27 BCE – 14 CE), and established a military and political bureaucracy for managing the extensive lands and international relationships in the ancient world that was passed down to his successors. The consolidation of power also massively increased the wealth of Rome and Roman citizens, and resulted in a fascination with imported exotic trade goods, religions and mystic practices. Enter the astrologers!

There is no evidence of astrological practice in the records of the early days of the Roman Republic. The Romans described in the histories of Titus Livius (Livy) paid attention to omens and portents, and these were recorded each year by the priests of Jupiter. These annual records were destroyed when Rome was sacked by the Gauls after the Battle of Allia in 360 BCE. Historians speculate that the priests and elders attempted to reconstruct these records from memory after the Gauls were expelled from the area, and it was from these reconstructed accounts that Livy drew his information.

Scipio Africanus

The Punic Wars were fought against Carthage, a state in what is now Algeria in northern Africa. Carthage was a sea power and threatened Rome’s commerce. The brothers Hannibal and Hasdrubal Barca were the chief Carthaginian generals of during second Punic War. They set up a base of operations in Spain where soldiers were recruited and trained. The Romans sent armies into Spain to try to expel the Carthaginians. After a horrible defeat, the Roman officers had a meeting. No one wanted to take command of the hopeless situation. A young man, Publius Cornelius Scipio (born 235 BCE), had lost both his father and uncle in the conflict. He volunteered to lead the expedition, and took command of the Roman army in Spain.

In spite of his youth, Scipio proved adept at war and diplomacy. He collected intelligence about enemy troops, reconnoitered so he could use the land to his advantage, and strove to understand the relationships between different tribes. He planned attacks and chose targets with great care, and often won because he relied on feints, surprise attacks, and misdirection. He never encountered the enemy when his forces were outnumbered or in an unfavorable location. Within a few years, he had expelled the Carthaginians from Spain. Scipio determined that it was time to bring the battle home for Hannibal by invading northern Africa.

The Senate wasn’t as grateful has he’d hoped. Through his own clever management, Scipio created an army adequate to the task. Once Scipio and his legions were in Africa, they set up a base camp about twenty five miles from Carthage. Hannibal was forced to return to Africa, as Scipio had intended. After a series of skirmishes and clashes, Scipio drew Hannibal into a final, head-on confrontation at Zama (204 BCE). The encounter between these two experienced generals and their well-trained forces is one of the most equal contests in military history. Captain Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart’s[1] book, Scipio Africanus: Greater than Napoleon,[2] is an invaluable text, as it combines biography, military and political analysis into one short, dense text.

Although Liddell Hart doesn’t explicitly say that Scipio Africanus used astrologers to plan his battles, he admits that Scipio had a reputation for speaking with Jupiter and being given divine inspiration. He quotes Livy, saying “He rarely spoke in public without pretending some nocturnal vision or supernatural suggestion...In order to impress public opinion he [never engaged in] any business, public or private, without first paying a visit to the Capitol. There he would enter the sanctuary and pass some time, in solitude and seclusion. This made converts to a belief that his origin was other than human.”

Rumors were circulated that his mother was impregnated by a snake – the same story that was told about Alexander the Great. Scipio never denied these rumors, probably because he was astute enough to feed his soldiers’ superstitions in his favor. Scipio Africanus was an unusual man for his times because he was very open to Greek ways. His practices were thought to be un-Roman by many senators. His openness to Greek clothing, food, and lifestyle might have included openness to using astrology for his own benefit, although this is not specifically suggested in Liddell Hart’s text. But it is plausible, because Scipio obviously took advantage of portents and omens, and was known to believe in them.

Writers of Imperial Rome

Three writers provide information about astrologers and astrology in the Imperial Empire period: Pliny, Tacitus and Suetonius. The surviving works of all of these writers were well-circulated through medieval and Renaissance Europe, and deeply influenced the political and military thinking of those times. It is possible that European leaders were impressed by the idea of keeping an astrologer in one’s personal retinue, and followed suit in their own noble courts.

Soldiers are superstitious. The least little thing can enflame or demoralize fighting groups before a battle. Evidence of this appears again and again in these ancient books, and not much has changed. Astral phenomenon, like eclipses and comets, are cited repeatedly in connection with important battles. The commanders who either took advantage of these portents, or explained them to their men, generally won the encounter. Knowledge of the heavens was intricately linked with ancient military practices.

As will be seen, astrologers were expelled from Italy repeatedly. Somehow, these proscriptions never seemed to stick. Astrologers appear persistently in these histories. They were at times members of Imperial households, and the less-dangerously employed astrologers worked out of their homes in the suburbs of Rome. Astrologers were not always servants and victims of the whims of Emperors, but sometimes took a return swipe at their imperial masters. A prize quotation from Suetonius proves that the astrologers of Rome were a force to be reckoned with. Read on!

Pliny the Elder

Pliny the Elder was a well-traveled and well-read Roman general who served in Spain, Gaul, and in Asia. His book, Natural History,[3] was written around 70 CE, at the beginning of Vespasian’s reign. Because of his extensive knowledge of mining, metals, and gems, Pliny was a great favorite of medieval alchemists.

Book II of this work is entitled “Astronomy.” He accounts for an eclipse that occurred before Alexander’s victory at Arbela [20 September 331 BCE].[4] Pliny reports that eclipses of the Sun and Moon were researched by Thales and Hipparchus; and that the first Roman explaining eclipses was Sulpicius Gallus, a military tribune who later served as consul with Marcus Marcellus (II:53). Gallus predicted a lunar eclipse on the eve of the Battle of Pydna [168 BCE], when Lucius Aemilius Paulus defeated King Perseus. The Roman army successfully countered the tactics of the Macedonia phallanx.[5] Pliny wrote, “Gallus was brought before the assembled troops...to give prior warning of an eclipse and thereby dispelled the army’s anxiety. Subsequently Gallus wrote a book on eclipses. Among the Greeks, Thales of Miletus (end note 2, p 17, one of the seven sages from Miletus...according to tradition he foretold, to within a year, the solar eclipse that occurred during the Battle of the Halys on 28 May 585 BCE) was the first to examine eclipses, and in the fourth year of the 48^th Olympiad [585 BCE] predicted an eclipse which occurred two years later in the reign of Alyattes. After him Hipparchus recorded the orbits of both planets for 600 years prior to his own day.” (II: 53)

Pliny felt that the natural sciences were important and not given enough attention in the typical Roman courses of education. He suggests that “...the discoveries of natural laws have freed the minds that previously feared eclipses of the planets signified some sort of crime or death...The Athenian General Nicias was afraid to lead his fleet from harbour and so destroyed the Athenians’ greatness.” (II: 54) (end note 3: an ill-fated Athenian expedition to Syracuse. An eclipse of the moon [27 August 413 BCE] caused Nicias to delay abandoning the siege of the city with disastrous results. See Plutarch, “Nicias,” p. 23). Although there are contradictions between this advanced statement and the inclusion of common beliefs, Pliny was writing as other encyclopedists of his time – merely reporting, not evaluating.

Information on other astral phenomena is included. “The Greeks call them ‘comets’; we call them ‘long-haired’ stars.” (II: 89, p. 19) The Romans took the appearance of comets quite seriously as portents. “(A) comet appeared when Octavian was consul during the civil disturbance, as earlier during the war between Pompey and Caesar [49 BCE] as in our own era it appeared about the time of the poisoning [of Britannicus, 54 CE] as a result of which Claudius Caesar left the empire to Domitius Nero.”[6] (II: 91 - 94, p. 20)

Pliny includes some of the traditional interpretations of comets: “They believe that if it looks like a flute, it is a portent for music; if it is in the private parts of a constellation,...a portent for permissive behavior; if it forms a triangle, or a square...in relation to fixed stars, it portends men of genius and learning; in the head of the Northern or Southern Serpent, it brings poisonings.” (II: 93) He also refers to the comet that was visible during the games that Octavian sponsored in honor of Julius Caesar “Indeed, if I confess the truth, it did bring health to the world.” Apparently not all comets were assumed to have evil connotations – there were constellational and other criteria applied to these appearances.

Other types of astral items are noted, and are consistently associated with military events. “Meteors are visible...like the one that sped across the sky at midday...when Germanicus Caesar was putting on a gladiatorial show. There are two kinds: ‘lampades’ or torches; the other ‘bolides’ or missiles, like those visible at the Battle of Mutina [Decimus Brutus was beseiged at Mutina by Marcus Antonius in 44 BC]...There is a type called ‘dokoi’ – beams,...resembles the one that appeared when the Spartan fleet was defeated and lost control of Greece [at the battle of Cnidus, 394 BC]. (II:96)

Tacitus

Tacitus was a Roman general with an extensive career that took him to all parts of the Roman Empire. He lived somewhat later than Pliny, born in either 56 or 57 CE and died in 117 CE. He was consul in 97 CE and governor of Anatolia in 112 CE. Because he wrote under the Flavians and Trajan, he was able to give an honest accounting without fear of prosecution. Sometimes he omits details in favor of making a moral point, and makes leading insinuations, but generally, he is considered to be the most accurate reporter of the times. Tacitus’ Latin is idiosyncratic, compressed, and obscure. He resorted to irregular sentence construction and distorted syntax when he wanted to make a point. Good translations of Tacitus attempt to replicate his famous pithy wit and smarmy epigrams.

In the translator’s introduction of The Annals of Imperial Rome,[7] Michael Grant writes that “Tacitus, spasmodically and with reserves, is a believer in prophecy and portents.” (p. 22) Consequently, Tacitus is the richest source of information about astrologers during the Imperial period. Various phenomena, like eclipses, are noted when coincident with significant events. He also relates how the different emperors used or abused the services of astrologers.

The Histories (written circa 105 – 106 CE)[8] cover the civil wars after Nero’s death, which ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Much information is given about the Year of Four Emperors, 69 CE. During this year, four different men vied to claim the position of emperor – Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian, who established the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian was emperor for ten years, and was succeeded by his sons Titus and Domitian.

Because of the sheer wealth of information, quotes are given either preceded or followed by necessary explanatory information.

[In Tacitus’ introduction, he describes the period between Nero’s death and Trajan] “Besides these manifold disasters to mankind, there were portents in the sky and on earth, thunderbolts and other premonitions of good and evil, some doubtful, some devious. Indeed, never had it been proved by such terrible disasters to Rome or by such clear evidence that the gods are concerned not with our peace of mind, but rather with vengeance.” (I: 3, pg 4)

“It was only after Vespasian’s rise that we came to believe in the mysterious movings of Providence, and supposed that portents and oracles had predestined the throne for him and his family.” (I: 12, pg 9)

“[Otho] was also incited by the astrologers, who declared that their study of the stars pointed to great changes and a year of glory for Otho. People of this class always betray the powerful and deceive the ambitious; we shall go on for ever proscribing them and keeping them by us. Poppaea [Nero’s second wife] had always had her boudoir full of these astrologers, the worst kind of outfit for a royal marriage. One of them, called Ptolemy, had gone with Otho to Spain and foretold he would outlive Nero. This came true and Otho believed him. Now...he had persuaded him he would ascend to the throne. But Otho accepted the prophecy as if it was the signal of fate revealed by a skilled practitioner: human nature always likes to believe what it cannot understand. Nor was Ptolemy himself slow to incite his master to crime, which lies only a short step from such ambitions.” (I: 22, pg 16)

[At Lyons, after Otho’s defeat and suicide] “Vitellius forwarded an edict to Rome, in which he declined the title of Caesar, and postponed calling himself Augustus without giving up any portion of his power. All astrologers were exiled from Italy.” (II: 62 pg 93)

“At the end of Mucianus’ speech the others all pressed around [Vespasian] with new confidence, offering encouragement and quoting the answers of the soothsayers and the movement of the stars. Nor was Vespasian uninfluenced by such superstition. In later days, when he was master of the world, he made no secret of keeping an astrologer called Seleucus to help him by advice and prophecy. [The author lists other omens and portents from Vespasian’s early life; Vespasian stopped to worship and make a sacrifice at Mount Carmel in Judea; the priest Basilides augured:] “...there is granted to you a great habitation, vast acres, and a multitude of men.” (II: 78, pp 102-103)

[Tacitus makes a special distinction of giving the date when he was acclaimed as emperor by his troops, 1 July 69 CE, which was] “later celebrated as the day of his accession.” [at Alexandria, he notes that] “...they would not wait for the arrival of [his son] Titus, who was on his way from Syria.” (II: 79, pg 103)

The description of the scene suggests that he was acclaimed about the second or third hour of the day, when he exited his quarters in the morning. It would seem that Vespasian deliberately chose an elected time, and had his subordinates prompt his troops to make the acclamation at that specific time for best results.

“In Rome, nothing passes without comment, and it was regarded as a fatal omen that Vitellius took office as Chief Pontiff, and issued an ordinance on public worship, on 18 July, which, as the anniversary of the disasters on the Cremera and the Allia, had long been considered an unlucky day.” (II: 91, pg 110) [These are incidents from early Roman history. Almost the entire Fabian clan was exterminated at the Battle of Cremera; circa 479 BCE; the Gauls nearly destroyed Rome after the Roman army was scattered at Allia, a river that intersects with the Tiber some miles north of Rome, circa 387 BCE. July 18^th was observed as a ‘black day’ on which public business should not be transacted.]

“The task of restoring the Capitol was entrusted to Lucius Vestinus...He summoned soothsayers, and they recommended the former temple should be carried away to the marshes, and a new temple erected on the same foundations...On June 21^st, a day of bright sunshine, the whole consecrated area of the temple was decorated with chaplets and garlands.” (VI: 53, pg 207) [the ritual was held on summer solstice, a holy day in the pagan calendar]

***

Tacitus wrote The Annals of Imperial Rome circa 114 CE, but it is uncertain when this volume was finished and published – possibly just before his death in 117. Although the beginning of the book is lost, it gives reports on the emperors from Julius Caesar through Vespasian. The final chapters of the book are also lost. Nevertheless, it’s a gold mine of information about the influence of astrologers in the imperial court. Tiberius started a fad by including Thrasyllus in his personal retinue, and passed the habit to his successors. Other members of the Imperial court consulted astrologers, too.

[During the mutiny after Tiberius’ accession in Pannonia; summer camp under command of Quintus Junius Blaesus. Tiberius sent his son Drusus and Sejanus, to intervene. A full mutiny was:] “averted by a stroke of luck. Suddenly, in a clear sky, the light of the moon was seen to decline.” (I: 26, pg 48)

“Marius Scribonius Libo Drusus was accused of subversive plotting. Libo was a fatuous young man with a taste for absurdities...astrologer’s predictions, magicians’ rites and readers of dreams.” (II: 27, pg 90)

“Aemilia Lepida was now indicted...she was great-granddaughter of both Sulla and Pompey. She was accused of falsely claiming to bear a son to the rich and childless Publius Sulpicius Quirinius. There were additional charges of adultery, poisoning, and consultation of astrologers regarding the imperial house.” (III: 21, pg 130) [Seeking information about the emperor from astrologers and magicians was extremely illegal and very dangerous to one’s health]

[Tiberius leaves Rome for good, 26 CE] “The astrologers asserted that the conjunction of heavenly bodies under which he left Rome precluded his return.” (VI: 56, pg 186)

[33 CE] “Tiberius’ prophecy about Galba deserves mention; “You too, Galba, shall one day have a taste of empire.” This prophecy of Galba’s late, brief principate was based on Tiberius’ knowledge of Chaldean astrology, taught him at Rhodes by Thrasyllus. He had tested Thrasyllus’ knowledge this way. When seeking occult guidance, Tiberius would retire to the top of his house [in Capri] with a tough, illiterate former slave as a confidant. Those astrologers [to be tested] were escorted to him over pathless, precipitous ground. Then, on their way down, if they were suspected of unreliability or fraudulence, the ex-slave hurled them into the sea below...Thrasyllus had impressed him, when interrogated, by his intelligent forecasts of future events, including Tiberius’ accession. Tiberius then inquired if Thrasyllus had cast his own horoscope. How did it appear for the current year and day? Thrasyllus, after measuring the positions and distance of the stars, hesitated, then showed alarm. The more he looked, the greater became his astonishment and fright. Then he cried that a critical and perhaps fatal emergency was upon him. Tiberius clasped him, commending his divination of peril and promising he would escape it. Thrasyllus was admitted among his closest friends; his pronouncements were regarded as oracular [Tacitus then discusses the question of fate versus free will]...I will record the forecast of Nero’s reign made by Thrasyllus’ son” (VI: 29, pp 209-210) [unfortunately, the book that contains this forecast is one of the missing sections of The Annals, so this forecast is lost.]

“Tiberius foretold that Gaius [Caligula] would have all of Sulla’s faults and none of his virtues.” (VI. 46, pg 224)

The manuscript breaks off at the death of Tiberius, 16 March 27 CE. The four years of the reign of Gaius Caligula are lost, as are the first six years of Claudius’ reign.

[52 CE] “Lucius Arruntius Furius Scribonianus was now exiled for inquiring from astrologers about the emperor’s death [i.e. Claudius]. The charge was also extended to his mother, Vibia...The senate passed a severe, but futile, decree banning astrologers from Italy.” (XII: 48, pg 275)

[54 CE. Claudius is poisoned by a conspiratorial trio consisting of his wife Agrippina, Locusta, and his doctor, Xenophon.] “The appropriate steps were taken to secure Nero’s accession...Agrippina issued frequent encouraging announcements about the emperor’s health [he was already dead] to maintain the Guard’s morale and await the propitious moment forecast by the astrologers. At last, at midday on October 13, the palace gates were suddenly thrown open...[and] out came Nero.” (XII: 66, pg 282)

[The death of Agrippina] “This was the end Agrippina had anticipated for years. The prospect had not daunted her. When she asked astrologers about Nero, they had answered that he would become emperor but kill his mother. Her reply was, ‘Let him kill me – provided he becomes emperor!’ ” (XIV: 7, pg 317)

[66 CE. In this passage, Sosanius is an informer to Nero] “Pammenes’ fame as an astrologer had won him many friends...messengers were continually arriving to consult him...Pammanes received an annual subsidy from Publius Anteius. Sosanius...stole from Pammenes’ secret files documents giving Anteius’ horoscope and destiny. He likewise found there papers relating to the birth and life of Marcus Ostorius Scapula.” (XVI: 10, pg 387)

From these statements, it is apparent that Tacitus believed in the power of astrology, but is leery of the morals and ambitions of practitioners. He was aware that some astrologers were more skillful than others. He begrudges them their correct forecasts, but still feels obliged to report them to his readers. Note that he mentions “astrologers” in the quotation from VI: 56. It is possible that there was an astrologer’s guild in Rome, as it was a popular thing for members of various professions to organize and regulate prices through guild memberships. An astrologer’s guild might have offered some minimal form of protection, and performed a small service by keeping an eye out for unsavory practitioners coming into Rome to take advantage of the naive. More possible evidence for this comes from the next writer.

Suetonius

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was born in the Year of Four Emperors, 69 CE. He was a Roman knight whose family originated in Hippo Regius (now Annaba in Algeria). He served in the military with Pliny the Younger, who was governor of Bithynia from 110 - 112 CE. Suetonius’ career became more sedate and literary in his later years. He was the director of the imperial libraries under Trajan, and was in charge of Hadrian’s correspondence. He was depicted as a quiet, studious man, devoted to writing. He represents a new generation of professional historians and scholars, and lived past 130 CE, so is the latest author represented in this survey.

Suetonius’ biographies are a genre distinct from Tacitus’ histories. He writes in topical rather than chronological order. In contrast to Tacitus and earlier writers, his coverage is amazingly objective. He presents both positive and negative information without making judgment or drawing moral conclusions. This author quotes his sources verbatim, and cites sources he used from the imperial and private records. His work in the imperial library gave Suetonius unparalleled access to sequestered, private papers and records, and to letters written by previous emperors.

His book, The Twelve Caesars, profiles the emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian. The introductory material describing Julius Caesars’ family and youth is lost in all manuscripts. The author gives birth data for each emperor, some quite detailed. Each emperor is given his own chapter; numbered paragraphs in the manuscript are indicated by ¶. The paragraph numbering begins anew in each chapter.

Julius Caesar (Gaius Julius Caesar)

[born 13 July 100 BCE, died 15 March 44 BCE, Rome]

“On the first day of the Games given by his successor Augustus in honor of [Julius Caesar’s] apotheosis, a comet appeared about an hour before sunset and shone for seven days running. This was held to be Caesar’s soul, elevated to Heaven; hence the star, now placed above the forehead of his divine image.” (¶ 88, pp 43-44)

Augustus Caesar (Gaius Octavius, called Octavian)

[born 23 September 62 BCE, before sunrise at Ox Heads, the Palatine District, Rome; died 18 August 14 CE, 3 pm, Nola]

“[Augustus’] body is said to have been marred by blemishes of various sorts – a constellation of seven birthmarks on his chest and stomach, exactly corresponding in form, order, and number with the Great Bear...” (¶ 80, pg 92)

[Describing omens around Augustus’ birth, and later in his life] “...there is a story I found in a book called Theologumena, by Asclepiades of Mendes. Augustus’ mother, Atia, with certain married women friends, once attended a solemn midnight service at the temple of Apollo, where she had her little set down, and presently fell asleep as the others also did. Suddenly a serpent glided up, entered her, and then glided away again. On awakening, she purified herself, as if after intimacy with her husband. An irremovable colored mark in the shape of a serpent appeared on her body....the birth of Augustus nine months later suggested a divine paternity.

“When Octavius arrived late, because of Atia’s confinement, Publius Nigidius Figulus the astrologer, hearing at what hour the child had been delivered, cried out: ‘The ruler of the world is now born.’

“...At Apollonia, Augustus and Agrippa together visited the house of Theogenes the astrologer, and climbed upstairs to his observatory; they both wished to consult him about their future careers....Augustus...felt ashamed to disclose the time of his birth. Yet when...he grudgingly supplied the information...Theogenes rose and flung himself at his feet; and this gave Augustus so implicit a faith in the destiny awaiting him that he even ventured to publish his horoscope, and struck a silver coin stamped with Capricorn, the sign under which he had been born.” (¶ 94, pg 99) [Suetonius gives Augustus’ birth data as 23 September 62 BCE, before sunrise at Ox Heads, the Palatine District, Rome. Unless the calendar was grossly wrong, which did happen from time to time when the High Pontiff was lazy and didn’t keep the calendar in line with the seasons, Augustus was a Libra or Virgo sun sign; perhaps the Capricorn represents his Ascendant?]

[Describing the omens at the end of Augustus’ life] “...when he noticed a crowd of torch-bearers were attending Masgaba’s tomb, he improvised this Greek line: ‘I see the Founder’s tomb ablaze with fire,’ then asked Thrasyllus, Tiberius’ astrologer, who was reclining opposite of him and did not understand the reference; ‘What poet wrote that?’ Thrasyllus hesitated, and Augustus capped his own line, reciting: ‘With torches, look, they honor Masgaba!’ and again asked: ‘Who wrote that?’ Thrasyllus, unable to divine the authorship, mumbled: ‘Both lines are very good, whoever the poet was.’ Augustus burst out laughing and made a joke of it.” (¶ 98, pg 104) [Augustus died on 19 August 14 CE at 3:00 pm, Nola, Italy; given in ¶ 100, pg 105.]

Tiberius Caesar (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero)

[born 16 November 41 BCE; died 16 March 37]

“While Tiberius was a mere infant, Scribonius the astrologer prophesized for him an illustrious career and a crownless kingdom...A few days before the letter arrived recalling him from Rhodes, an eagle perched on the roof of his house...Tiberius happened to be strolling along the cliffs with Thrasyllus the learned astrologer, whom he had made a member of his household. Now, Tiberius was losing faith in Thrasyllus’ powers of divination, and regretted having rashly confided secrets to him for...everything seemed to be going wrong. Thrasyllus was, indeed, in immediate danger of being pushed over the cliff, when he pointed out to sea and announced that the distant ship brought good news; a lucky stroke which persuaded Tiberius of his trustworthiness.” (¶ 14, pg 117)

“Tiberius also banished all astrologers except such as asked for his forgiveness and undertook to make no more predictions.” (¶ 35, pg 128)

“He lacked any deep regard for the gods or other religious feelings, his belief in astrology having persuaded him that the world was wholly ruled by fate.” (¶ 69, pg 145)

Gaius Caesar “Caligula”(Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus)

[born 31 August 12 CE, at either Antium, which Suetonius researched and feels is correct; or Treveri, just above the junction of the Moselle and the Rhine, a location suggested by Pliny the Elder; died 24 January 41 CE]

“...on asking Sulla the soothsayer for his horoscope, Gaius learned that he must expect to die very soon.” (¶ 57, pg 180)

Claudius Caesar (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus)

[born 1 August 10 BCE at Lugdunum; died 13 October 54 CE ]

“The main omens of Claudius’ death included the rise of a long-haired star, known as a comet; lightening struck his father’s tomb, and an unusual mortality among magistrates of all ranks.” (¶ 46, pg 211)

Nero Caesar (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus)

[born 15 December 27 CE at Antium, at sunrise; died 9 June 68 CE]

“....Nero’s horoscope at once occasioned many ominous predictions; and a significant comment was made by his father in reply to the congratulations of his friends; namely, that any child born to himself and Agrippina was bound to have a detestable nature and become a public danger.” (¶ 6, pg 216)

“A comet, popularly supposed to herald the death of some person of outstanding importance, appeared several nights running. His astrologer Balbillus [son of Thrasyllus] observed that monarchs usually avoided portents of this kind by executing their most prominent subjects and thus directing the wrath of heaven elsewhere; so Nero resolved on a wholesale massacre of the nobility.” (¶ 36, pg 235)

“At last, after nearly fourteen years of Nero’s misrule, the earth rid herself of him...Nero’s astrologers had told him that he would one day be removed from the throne, and were given the famous reply: ‘A simple craft will keep a man from want.’ [i.e. his lyre-playing would support him]...Some astrologers forecast that, if forced to leave Rome, he would find another throne in the East; one or two even particularized that of Jerusalem. Others assured him that he would recoup all his losses, a prediction on which he based high hopes...” (¶ 40, pg 238)

Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galba)

[born 24 December 3 BCE, near Tarracina; died 15 January 69 CE]

Otho (Marcus Salvius Otho)

[born 25 April 32 CE; died 16 April 69 CE]

“...Seleucus, an astronomer who encouraged these ambitions, had already foretold that Otho would outlive Nero, and now arrived unexpectedly with the further prediction that he would soon also become Emperor. After this Otho missed no chance of flattering or showing favour to anyone...As a result of such measures, no one at Rome questioned his fitness to wear the imperial purple, and it was openly said that he alone was worthy to succeed to the Empire.” (¶ 4, pg 264)

Aulus Vitellius

[born 24 September 14 CE; 22 December 69 CE]

“The boy’s horoscope, announced by the astrologers, so horrified his parents that Lucius [his father] always did everything in his power to prevent him from winning a provincial governorship; and when he was sent to the legions and subsequently proclaimed Emperor, his mother gave him up for lost. Vitellius had spent his boyhood on Capri, among Tiberius’ male prostitutes. There he won the nickname ‘Spintria’ which clung to him throughout his life; by surrendering his chastity, so the story goes, he secured his father’s first advancement to public office.” (¶ 3, pg 272)

“...He particularly disliked lampoonists and astrologers, and made away at once with any who came up before him without hearing their defense [i.e. executed without trial]. This resentment dated from an edict of his, forbidding any astrologers to remain in Italy after October 1^st, had been capped with a counter edict:

‘Decreed by all astrologers

In blessing on our State:

Vitellius will be no more

On the appointed date.’

According to some accounts, a prophet of the Chatti, a woman who Vitellius credited with oracular powers, had promised him a long, secure reign if he outlived his mother; so when she fell sick, he had her starved to death. Another version is that his mother, grown weary...begged him for a supply of poison; a request he was not slow to grant.” (¶ 14, pg 278)

Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus)

[born 17 November 9 CE at Falacrina, just beyond Reate; died 23 June 79 CE]

Vespasian was intensely ambitious because of early omens, and had great confidence in astrology. Tacitus states that he kept an astrologer in his personal retinue. Suetonius gives a thorough accounting of Vespasian’s personality, including his twisted sense of humor, his lusty appetite for women, and his avarice. His greed may have been frightfully necessary considering the near-bankrupt condition of the Empire after the financial depredations of Nero and Vitellius.

“A distinguished Jewish prisoner, Josephus by name, insisted that he would soon be released by the very man who had put him in fetters, and who would then be Emperor.” (¶5, pg 285)

“...at the fatal sight of a comet he cried: ‘Look at all that long hair! The King of Parthia must be going to die.’ His death bed joke was: ‘Dear me, I must be turning into a god.’ ” (¶ 23, pg 294) [Vespasian collapsed on 23 June 79 CE, and died soon after]

“All accounts agree on Vespasian’s supreme confidence in his horoscopes and those of his family. Despite frequent plots to murder him, he dared tell the Senate that either of his sons would succeed him or no one would...and this proved to be an accurate prophecy, since the families were destined to rule for the same number of years and an equal length of time.” (¶ 25, pp 294-295)

Titus (also Titus Flavius Vespasianus)

[born 30 December 41 CE, in a slum close to the Septizotrium; died 13 Sept 81 CE]

Titus was a friend of the young Britannicus, had a phenomenal memory, and excelled in the arts of war and peace, oration, and the harp. He acted as his father’s colleague, and had a scandalous affair with Queen Berenice of Judea that lasted over ten years. Horrible catastrophes occurred during his short reign: the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, a fire at Rome, and an outbreak of plague. The following quotation indicates that he also had some skill at astrology.

[After discovering two patricians plotting to gain the Empire] “...he consulted the horoscopes of both men and warned them what dangers threatened, but at some future date and from another person – quite correctly, as events proved.” (¶ 9, pg 301)

Domitian (Titus Flavius Domitianus)

[born 24 October 51 CE, in Pomegranate Street, 6^th District of Rome; died 18 September 96 CE]

Domitian had a poverty-stricken, degraded childhood, during which he was sexually abused by his guardian. He plotted against Titus continually. The brothers were raised separately – Titus spent much more time with his father on military campaigns, while Domitian was left in dubious circumstances at Rome. It is unknown why the younger son was raised so carelessly, and he didn’t turn out well. He was extravagant, greedy, and cruel – many compared his reign to Nero’s. On the positive side, he completed many architectural improvements of Rome that had been started by his father, including the Circus Maximus.

“All of this made him everywhere feared and hated...Astrological predictions had long since warned him in what year and day he would die; they even specified the hour and the manner.” (¶ 14, pg 313)

[Reporting omens before his death] “Domitian dreamed that Minerva, whom he worshipped with superstitious reverence, emerged from her shrine to tell him that she had been disarmed by Jupiter and could no longer protect him. What disturbed him most, however, was a prediction by the astrologer Ascletario, and its sequel. This man, when charged, made no secret of having revealed the future, which he had foreseen by his magical arts [about his own death]...Ascletario replied he would very soon be torn to pieces by dogs...[Domitian] had him executed on the spot, and gave orders that the funeral rites be conducted with great care, as further proof that astrology was a fake....a gale scattered the pyre and dogs mangled the half-burned corpse.” (¶15, pg 314)

“On the day before Domitian’s assassination...he remarked: ‘There will be blood on the Moon as she enters Aquarius, and a deed will be done for everyone to talk about throughout the entire world.’ ” (¶ 16, pg 315)

Domitian died on 18 September 96 CE. He obviously disliked astrology, but he knew quite a bit about it – enough to suggest that he had some training in the art.

***

Side note: It was fascinating to discover that both Scipio Africanus and Augustus Caesar were reputed to share Alexander the Great’s paternity by a snake. Alexander’s reputation with the noble Romans was huge, and apparently having a snake for a father conferred special abilities in battle or the potential for greatness. The “snake father” lore may be an astrological metaphor – perhaps planets conjunct the Nodes or a constellational snake like Draco or Hydra; or secondly, a star from a snake-type constellation as a heliacal rising star.

Sun-tzu’s “Art of Warfare”

In 1972, archeologists in Yin-ch’ueh-shan, Shantung province, excavated a group of tombs that dated back to the second century BCE. The tombs contained a priceless cache of manuscripts as grave goods. New copies of extant texts, material from extant texts considered apocryphal, and divinatory texts were among the prizes found. But the greatest finds, from both a literary and archeological standpoint, were the discoveries of lost texts, and missing sections of extant texts.

One of the missing sections of an extant text were the missing five chapters from the legendary military text, Sun-tzu’s The Art of Warfare (Sun-tzu ping-fa).[9] Sun-Wu (c 544 – 496 BCE), called Sun-tzu, or Master Sun, was a contemporary of Confucius. The “core thirteen” chapters were the earliest section of the text, and it is in this form that The Art of Warfare has been transmitted prior to the Shantung excavations.

The Ballantine edition published in 1993 showcased the newly discovered material translated for the first time into English by Roger Ames. It is included in the Modern Library’s The Book of War, which pairs the extended The Art of Warfare with Von Clausewitz’s On War. A fascinating introduction is supplied by military writer Ralph Peters (Lt Colonel, US Army, retired). The book is divided as follows: Part I contains the core thirteen chapters that have long been in circulation; Part II contains the recovered five chapters found in Tomb #3 at Yin-ch’ueh-shan (possibly written by Sun Tzu’s descendant, Sun Pin, c 308 – 316 BCE); Part III gives commentaries from later encyclopedic works were included with the excavated Sun-tzu text.

Part I: Chapter 12 “Incendiary Attack” gives instructions for using fire in attacks. “There are appropriate seasons for using fire, and appropriate days that will help fan the flames. The appropriate season is when the weather is hot and dry; the appropriate days are those when the moon passes through the constellations of the Winnowing Basket, the Wall, the Wings, and the Chariot Platform. Generally these four constellations mark days when the winds rise.” (pg 121)

The Winnowing Basket, or the Sieve, is a four-star asterism at 0˚ Capricorn that includes stars from Sagittarius and Telescopium. The Wall, or Partition, is a two-star asterism at 8˚ Aries that includes a star from Pegasus and one from Andromeda. The Wings, or Flanks, is a 22-star asterism at 22˚ Virgo, with stars from Crateris. The Chariot Platform is a four-star asterism at 9˚ Libra with stars from Corvi. All the asterisms are under the influence of Mercury except the Wings, which has a Mars influence. This is extrapolated from Robson’s chapter on the twenty-eight Chinese lunar mansions. (I have not yet found more contemporary resources that confirm this information, however.)

In the final chapter of Part I, Chapter 13, “Using Spies,” Master Sun states that “Thus the reason the farsighted ruler and his superior commander conquer the enemy at every move, and achieve successes far beyond the reach of the common crowd, is foreknowledge. Such foreknowledge cannot be had from ghosts and spirits, educed by comparison with past events, or verified by astrological calculations. It must come from people – people who know the enemy’s situation.” (pg 123)

Of course, this implies that there were generals and emperors who utilized astrological information before battles, or Sun-tzu wouldn’t feel a need to attempt to proscribe it.

Part II contains a rather mystical Chapter 3, “The Yellow Emperor Attacks the Red Emperor.” To summarize, the Yellow Emperor at the center attacks, in turn, the Red Emperor to the south, the Green Emperor to the east, the Black Emperor to the north, and the White Emperor to the west. (pp 135-136) The translator adds that:

“...this passage uses terminology associated with the prognostications of the Yin-yang Five Phases School (c 305-240 BCE)...According to this school, all natural phenomena and events in the processes of the world are defined in terms of their place relative to the changing conditions of the context. The description of the conquest of the Yellow Emperor also seems to refer to the “five processes.” The Master Han Fei 19.1.43 refers rather impatiently to such beliefs: ...Divining to the gods and spirits on tortoise shells is not going to give you the victory...there is not greater stupidity than, in spite of the irrelevance of such factors, to still rely upon them. The Master Wei-liao (1977): 1-4 has a similar reference: The Yellow Emperor’s dispatching the military...had nothing to do with calculating the auspicious days, the yin and yang relations or his relative direction described in the Heavenly Almanac. ...Sun-Tzu is rather practical in tone, and unsympathetic to divinatory revelation.” (Notes, pp 224-225)

In spite of discouraging the observation of portents, a later author composed Part III: Chapter 4, which is titled “The Prognostications of Sun-Tzu.” Wind and weather are both discussed as sources of omens to observe before the beginning of a battle, for example, “Master Sun said of those cloudlike vapors that govern a situation that they are neither cloud nor smoke nor mist. Where they take the shape of birds or animals, it is auspicious for the aggressor and a bad omen for the defending forces.” (pg 183)

Ancient Chinese literary discussions of military matters are entwined with philosophy and oriental mysticism. Although there are few references to divination and astrology in The Art of Warfare, the presence of any references in this relatively short text is testament to the use of astrology and divination in warfare as early as the Warring States period. Although Sun-Tzu himself is unsympathetic, it is evidence that military men were willing to acquire astrological “intell-grabs” to supplement other information sources. It is useless to comment on how this culture’s version of astrology might have been applied to warfare without astrological texts from this era of Chinese history.

As a final, ironic note, the quote at the top of the back cover of The Book of War is from B. H. Liddell Hart, “Civilization might have been spared much of the damage suffered in the world wars this century if the influence of Clausewitz’s On War had been blended with and balanced by a knowledge of Sun-tzu’s The Art of Warfare.” I found no mention of astrology (or of Scipio) in Von Clausewitz, which indicates how thoroughly astrology had been excised from military use by the Napoleonic era.

There may be more references to astrology as used in the late classical period in Plutarch, Dio Cassius, and other writers.